Table 4 Applications of different dosages of nano-particles on biofuels and combinations of biofuel nano-particle blend and application output

Biodiesel

Caulerpa racemosa

ZrO₂

50 ppm

100 ppm

B2050 ppm

B20100 ppm

Reduction of hydrocarbon (HC), carbon-mono oxide (CO)

Nitrogen oxides (NO_x) emission increase

[59]

Biodiesel

Madhuca longifolia

TiO₂

100 ppm

200 ppm

BD100T100 ppm

BD100T200 ppm

Reduction of 5.8% unburned HC, 9.3% CO, 2.7% smoke and 6.6% NO_x emission

[128]

Biodiesel blended with diesel

Jatropha curcas

Al₂O₃

CeO₂

30 ppm

30 ppm

B20A30C30 ppm

12% improved brake thermal efficiency

Reduction of 30% NO_x, 60% CO, 44% HC and 38% smoke

[61]

Biodiesel

Jatropha curcas

Al₂O₃

CeO₂

30 ppm

30 ppm

B100A30C30 ppm

Improved brake thermal efficiency

Reduction of NO_x, CO, HC and smoke

[61]

Biodiesel

Botryococcus braunii

TiO₂

SiO₂

50 ppm

100 ppm

B20TiO₂SiO₂50 ppm

B20TiO₂SiO₂100 ppm

Increased calorific value

Decrease in brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC)

Improved brake thermal efficiency (BTE)

Reduction of ignition delay time

Improved brake thermal efficiency

Improvement of combustion characteristics

Minimum CO, HC

Maximum NO_x, CO₂

[60]

Biodiesel

Pongamia pinnata

Rh₂O₃

100 nm

B100Rh₂O₃

Reduces CO, 37% NO_x, 45% unburnt HC

Improvement of thermal efficiency

[58]

Biodiesel

Glycine max

Co₃O₄

100 mg/l

38–70 nm

B100Co₃O₄

1.03% better engine performance than usual biodiesel combustion

Reduction of smoke and 7.46% NO_x emission

[56]

Biodiesel

Glycine max

Al–Mg

100 mg/l

38–70 nm

B100Al-Mg

Better engine performance than usual biodiesel combustion

Reduction of smoke and 16.33% NO_x emission

[56]

Biodiesel

Jatropha curcas

Al₂O₃

Al₂O₃

Carbon nano-tube (CNT)

Al₂O₃CNT

25 ppm

50 ppm

BAl₂O₃ ppm

BAl₂O₃ ppm

BCNT25 ppm

BCNT50 ppm

BAl₂O₃CNT

25 ppm

Considerable enhancement of brake thermal efficiency

Marginal reduction of harmful emissions

Improved heat transfer rate

Short ignition delay effect

Enhancement of heat conduction properties and surface area/volume ratio

[129]

Biodiesel

Azadirachta indica

Ag₂O

5 ppm

B100Ag₂O

5 ppm

Decrease of 12.22% CO, 10.89% HC, 4.24% NO_x and 6.61% smoke

Enhancement of brake thermal efficiency with reduction in brake-specific fuel consumption

[63]

Biodiesel

Azadirachta indica

Ag₂O

10 ppm

B100Ag₂O

10 ppm

Reduction of 16.47% CO, 14.21% HC, 6.66% NO_x and 8.34% smoke

Significant improvement of brake thermal efficiency with reduction in brake-specific fuel consumption

[63]

Biodiesel

Jatropha curcas

Co₃O₄

–

B10Co₃O₄

B20Co₃O₄

B100 Co₃O₄

Reduction of the ignition delay

Improvement of combustion by its’ catalytic effect

Burning of the carbon deposits

Reduction of black smoke

[57]

Biodiesel–bioethanol

Vegetable oil–alcohol

Fe₂O₃

150 ppm

BB Fe₂O₃150 ppm

1% increase in thermal efficiency

60% reduction of emission characteristics, reduction of NO_x, CO, HC and smoke

Better mixing

Presence of secondary atomization, disruption of primary droplet

Complete combustion

[57]

Biodiesel

Azadirachta indica

CaCO₃ nano-fluids

3 mg/l

5 mg/l

B100CaCO₃

Reduction of 4.08% specific fuel consumption reduction

3.9% increase of brake thermal efficiency

8.57% higher mechanical efficiency

Reduction of NO_x and HC emission

[130]

Biodiesel

Linum usitatissimum

CuO

80 ppm

40 μmol/L

80 μmol/L

120 μmol/L

B20CuO80 ppm

Significant increase in thermal efficiency

3–4% increase of brake thermal efficiency

25% reduction of CO

Reduction of NO_x and HC emission

[62]

Biodiesel–castoroil–diesel–bioethanol

Vegetable oil–Ricinus communis oil

Vegetable oil–alcohol

CeO₂-CNT

25 ppm

50 ppm

100 ppm

–

Reduction of HC, CO, CO₂, smoke and NO_x

Increase of calorific value and brake thermal efficiency

[84]

Biodiesel

FeCl₃

20 μmol/l

BFeCl₃25

Reduction of HC, CO, CO₂, smoke and NO_x

Increase of calorific value and brake thermal efficiency

[84]