Table 1 LCA studies of bio-based building blocks and their corresponding TRLs

8–9

Acetic acid

Poplar chips (2nd generation)

Fermentation

Cradle-to-gate

[52]

Lactic acid

Glucose (1st generation)

Hydrolysis

Cradle-to-grave

[53]

1,3-Propanediol

Glucose (1st generation)

Fermentation

Cradle-to-gate

[54]

1,4-Butanediol

Wheat straw (1st generation)

Direct fermentation

Cradle-to-gate

[55, 56]

Ethylene

Poplar chips (2nd generation)

Rectisol reaction

Cradle-to-gate

[57]

Propylene glycol

Oils (1st generation)

Esterification

Cradle-to-gate

[58]

Ethylene glycol

Miscanthus (2nd generation)

Catalytic conversion

Cradle-to-gate

[59]

Furfural

Sugar beet (1st generation)

Pyrolysis

Gate-to-gate

[60]

Sorbitol

Glucose (1st generation)

Hydrogenation

Cradle-to-gate

[61]

7–8

Succinic acid

Sorghum (1st generation)

Fermentation

Cradle-to-gate

[62]

6–7

Levulinic acid

Rice straw (2nd generation)

Acid dehydration

Cradle-to-gate

[63]

Ethyl lactate

Corn stover (2nd generation)

Reversible esterification

Cradle-to-grave

[64]

5–6

Butyric acid

Wheat straw (2nd generation)

Fermentation

Cradle-to-gate

[65]

Formic acid

Beechwood (2nd generation)

OxFA-Process

Gate-to-gate

[66]

5-Hydroxymethyl furfural

Bread waste (2nd generation)

Catalyst conversion

Cradle-to-gate

[67]

2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid

Hardwood chips (2nd generation)

Catalyst reaction

Cradle-to-gate

[68]

4–5

Adipic acid

Forest residues (2nd generation)

Fermentation

Cradle-to-gate

[69]