Table 4 Applications of γ-PGA and its derivatives

Food industry

Food supplement

Promotion of absorption of bioavailable minerals, such as Ca²⁺

[68]

Texture enhancer

Enhancing the rheological and thermal properties, and reducing the hardness of wheat bread

[98]

Oil-reducing agent

Reducing oil uptake during deep-fat frying

[99]

Cryoprotectant

The γ-PGA with 20 kDa could have higher antifreeze activities than high antifreeze agents like glucose

[11]

Thickener

Enhancing viscosity for fruit juice beverage, sports drinks

[1]

Animal feed additives

Increasing egg-shells strength; decreasing body fat, etc

[1]

Medicine

Metal chelator

Removal of heavy metals and radionuclides

[100]

Drug carrier/deliverer

Improvement of anticancer; nanoparticle medicine

[101]

Gene vectors

Use for gene therapy

[102]

Tissue engineering

Possessing the better mechanical properties, such as easily removed, the more hydrophilic and cytocompatible

[103]

Biological adhesive

Substitutes of fibrin with the better lung adhesion and air-leak sealing

[104]

Bioremediation

Biopolymer flocculant

Substitution for petro-chemically synthesized flocculants, such as polyacrylamide

[70]

Metal chelates

Removal of heavy metals and radionuclides

[105]

Dye removal

Effectively and circularly removing basic dyes from aqueous solution

[71]

Others

Moisturizer

Improving the qualities of skincare and hair care products

[72]

Biocontrol agent

Increasing the nutrient consumption as well as growth of seedlings

[106]

Biodegradable plastic

Use in biodegradable plastics with good thermoplastic property

[7]

Antibacterial activity

Its derivatives have antibacterial activity against Salmonella enteritidis, E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus

[107]

Functional membranes

Separation of metal ions; enantioselection of amino acids

[77]

Protective effect

γ-PGA has a unique protective effect on phage particles

[108]