The sorghum SWEET gene family: stem sucrose accumulation as revealed through transcriptome profiling

SbSWEET8-1 (Sobic.008G094000)

We examined the genes potentially responsible for sucrose synthesis and efflux from the leaf. SbSWEET8-1 was extremely highly expressed in the leaf from the start of heading through to 36 days after heading (Fig. 3). It was grouped in the same clade as AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 (Fig. 4). AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 play a role in the efflux of photosynthesized sucrose to the apoplast in the leaves of Arabidopsis [21]. Although there were three tandemly duplicated SWEET genes (SbSWEET8-1, SbSWEET8-2, and SbSWEET8-3; Fig. 2) in the same clade (Fig. 4), SbSWEET8-1 was the only one expressed at extremely high levels (FPKM > 800 in the leaf; Fig. 3). We therefore consider that it plays a major role in sucrose efflux from the leaf (Fig. 5a, b). Moreover, the gene encoding the enzymes SPS3 (Sobic.005G089600) was highly expressed in the leaf. SbSUT1 (Sobic.001G488700), a gene encoding an SUT transporter, was highly expressed in the leaf from the start of heading through to 36 days after heading, suggesting that sucrose is taken up and concentrated in the sieve element–companion cell complex (Fig. 5b). These data suggested that sucrose is newly synthesized and actively exported from the leaf at this stage (Fig. 5a).

SWEET9-1 (Sobic.009G080900) was expressed at higher levels in the leaf than in the stem and panicles from the start of heading through to 36 days after heading (Fig. 3). SWEET9-1 had no potential orthologs in Arabidopsis or rice (Fig. 4). Because the expression level of SWEET8-1 was massively higher in the leaf through to 36 days after heading than that of SWEET9-1, SWEET8-1 may function mainly in phloem loading in the leaf.

SbSWEET4-3 (Sobic.004G136600)

We next examined the genes potentially responsible for sucrose accumulation in the stem. SbSWEET4-3 was expressed more highly in the stem than in the other tissues during the stage of sucrose accumulation (Fig. 3). Although SWEET expression is diverse in the various tissues of sorghum, this potent expression in the stem is unique to SbSWEET4-3 (Fig. 3). SbSWEET4-1, SbSWEET4-2 and SbSWEET4-3 were located on chromosome 4 (Fig. 2) and categorized into the same clade (Fig. 4). The products of these three SbSWEET genes had high levels of amino acid identity with each other (Additional file 1: Fig. S1A), but the tissue specificity was different: SbSWEET4-3 was expressed mainly in the stem, whereas SbSWEET4-1 and SbSWEET4-2 were expressed mainly in the panicles (Fig. 3). We therefore hypothesized that SbSWEET4-3 is a sugar transporter with specific roles in the stem.

We compared the coded sequence and expression of SbSWEET4-3 between SIL-05 and BTx623. One amino acid substitution (D229E) was found between SIL-05 and BTx623 (Table 2). The aspartic acid (D) residue at 229 is conserved as D in the paralogs of SIL-05 (in the case of SbSWEET4-1, SbSWEET4-2, and SbSWEET4-3) (Additional file 1: Fig. S1A), and in other SWEET homologs in Brachypodium distachyon, Oryza sativa, Setaria italica, and Zea mays (Additional file 1: Fig. S1B). D229 has also been found in SbSWEET4-3 of other sweet sorghums (Cowley and Top76-6 [32]). We therefore consider that the D residue is necessary for efficient sucrose transport, although some SWEETs might function in tissues other than the stem. Because of the D229E substitution, SbSWEET4-3 in BTx623 might have relatively low sucrose transport activity. Moreover, the relatively high level of expression in the stem of SIL-05 (more than ten times that in the panicle; Fig. 3) differs from that in BTx623: the expression levels of SbSWEET4-3 in the stem of BTx623 at the time of anthesis (150 days after sowing) are as low as those in the panicle [33]. We therefore consider that the amino acid substitution at 229 and the higher level of expression of SbSWEET4-3 in the stem than in the panicle might explain the higher sucrose accumulation in the stem of SIL-05 than in that of BTx623.

We analyzed the synteny of SWEET genes between the sorghum and rice chromosomes using the Plant Genome Duplication Database [34]. The region of chromosome 4 of sorghum had synteny with chromosome 2 of rice, but large insertions/deletions were present, and SbSWEET4-3 had no corresponding SWEET genes on chromosome 2 of rice (Fig. 6). In the region corresponding to SbSWEET4-3, there were three genes instead of putative SWEET homologs; the functions of LOC_Os02g26294 and LOC_Os02g26300 are unknown, and LOC_Os02g26310 functions as a leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinase (Fig. 6). We considered that LOC_Os02g19820 (OsSWEET4) of rice was the ortholog of SbSWEET4-1. LOC_Os02g19820 was expressed in leaf, stem, and tissues in the panicle [35]. As the N-terminal region of SbSWEET4-3 was similar to that of SbSWEET4-1 (Additional file 1: Fig.S1A), we thus considered that SbSWEET4-3 was duplicated from SbSWEET4-1 after the branching of sorghum and rice (Fig. 6).

The region also had synteny with chromosome 5 of Zea mays. The three sorghum SWEET paralogs (SbSWEET4-1, SbSWEET4-2 and SbSWEET4-3) corresponded to the three respective maize SWEET genes (GRZM2G144581, GRZM2G137954 and GRMZM2G000812, respectively; Fig. 6). A comprehensive phylogenetic tree including 777 putative SWEET genes of 131 species supports this correspondence [19]. The tissue specificity of the genes was similar to that in sorghum: GRZM2G144581 is expressed mainly in the embryo; GRZM2G137954 in the seed and endosperm; GRMZM2G000812 in the stem 0–30 days after pollination (DAP) [36]. The stem-specific expression after DAP strongly supports the hypothesis that GRMZM2G000812/SbSWEET4-3 has specific roles in the stem. Therefore, gene duplication occurred before the branching of sorghum and maize. Why, then, does maize not accumulate as much sucrose in the stem as sorghum? One hypothesis is that there is a difference in the stem’s capacity to accumulate juice. Some cultivars (such as SIL-05) have a juicy parenchyma in the stem that can effectively accumulate sugar juice, but sorghum cultivars with a dry pith do not [37]. We therefore consider that because maize has a dry pith in the stem, it does not effectively accumulate sugar juice there. We consider that the trait of juicy stem in sorghum is necessary for the accumulation of large amounts of sucrose in this tissue.

We therefore consider that SbSWEET4-3 plays a pivotal role in sweet sorghums because of its potent expression in the stem, the amino acid substitution between SIL-05 and BTx623, and the absence of an orthologous gene in the syntenic region of O. sativa. SbSWEET4-3 is a strong candidate for a sucrose transporter that unloads sucrose from the phloem to the stem apoplast during the sucrose accumulation stage (Fig. 5a, c).

Other SWEET genes

On the basis of their analogy to Arabidopsis or rice genes, we examined SWEET genes with functions other than sucrose accumulation.

SbSWEET2-1 (Sobic.002G259300) and SbSWEET7-1 (Sobic.007G191200) were expressed only in the panicle from the start of heading through to 36 days afterward (Fig. 3); these genes are in the same clade as rice OsSWEET11/Xa13 (Fig. 4). OsSWEET11/Xa13 is expressed in the panicle and is essential for reproductive development [23, 25], suggesting that these SbSWEET2-1 and SbSWEET7-1 have roles in seed development (Fig. 5a).

SbSWEET9-3 (Sobic.009G252000) was highly expressed in the panicle only just after heading, after which their expression decreased (Fig. 3). These SWEET genes are grouped into the same clade as AtSWEET8/RPG1 (Fig. 4). AtSWEET8/RPG1 is essential for pollen viability through the transport of glucose across the plasma membranes of tapetum cells and pollen cells [21, 38]. We thus consider that SbSWEET9-3 are involved in the transport of glucose and contribute to pollen nutrition in sorghums (Fig. 5a).

SUT

SUT genes are in another sugar transporter family. SUT paralogs had tissue-specific expression in sorghum cultivars. In SIL-05, SbSUT1 and SbSUT2 were expressed highly in the leaf; SbSUT1, SbSUT2, and SbSUT4 in the stem; and SbSUT1, SbSUT2, SbSUT3, SbSUT4, and SbSUT5 in the panicle. SbSUT3 was expressed in the panicle just after heading (Fig. 3). In Rio (a sweet sorghum), SUT2 and SUT5 are expressed relatively highly in the stem, whereas in BTx623, SUT5, and SUT6 are expressed relatively highly in the inflorescence sink [26]. This tissue-specific expression suggests that SUT paralogs function in different sinks—i.e., in either the stem (for sucrose accumulation) or the grain or inflorescence (for starch synthesis or pollen nutrition). However, SUT genes are not differentially expressed between Wray (a sweet sorghum) and Macia (a grain sorghum) [27]. Therefore, the high level of expression of SUT genes in the stem [26] might be specific to Rio, and not a general feature of sweet sorghums.

INV

Invertase converts sucrose to glucose and fructose. All four sorghum INV genes were hardly expressed, or not expressed in the stem (Fig. 3). Given this absence of INV activity, loaded sucrose would not be hydrolyzed to glucose and fructose, and sucrose would therefore accumulate in the apoplast (Fig. 5). This is consistent with a previous analysis of INV enzymatic activity in the sorghum stem: INV activity in sorghum differs from that in sugarcane, as sugarcane also transfers sucrose to storage parenchyma, with hydrolysis to hexoses by cell-wall INV in the stem [39, 40]. In the panicle just after heading, one sorghum INV3 (Sobic.004G004800) was highly expressed (Fig. 3); this is consistent with a previous report of the occurrence of cell-wall INV activity in developing seeds [41], suggesting that sorghum INV contributes to starch synthesis in developing seeds.

SUS

SUS is a sucrose-cleaving enzyme that provides UDP-glucose and fructose [42]. SUS1 was expressed in all tissues at the sugar accumulation stage (Fig. 3). What is the effect of the sucrose-cleaving enzyme SUS1 in the stem of SIL-05? One hypothesis is that SUS1 provides energy and materials (e.g., cellulose) for construction of the sink structure of the internodes, which in turn increases the sucrose accumulation capacity in the stem of SIL-05. The SUS gene in sugarcane (called SS) is expressed at high levels in immature (developing) internodes, but at low levels in mature internodes [42]. A second hypothesis is that SUS1 production increases the hexose content of the stem of SIL-05. The hexose (glucose and fructose) content of the stem of SIL-05 (2–3 % each; Fig. 1) is uniquely high among high-Brix sorghums [43]. SUS1 expression was higher in the stem of SIL-05 (Fig. 3) than in that of BTx623 [33]. The relatively high level of expression of SUS1 in the stem might therefore relate to the high hexose content of SIL-05.

Other genes that might contribute to sucrose accumulation in stems

Expression diversity in sorghum cultivars might be responsible for the characteristic differences in sucrose accumulation between sweet and grain sorghums. Between BTx623 and Keller (a sweet sorghum), 3436 genes are differentially expressed, although 80 % of these differentially expressed genes have orthologs in rice [44]. Sugar-related traits have also been analyzed by quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis using a cross of SS79 (a sweet sorghum) × M71 (a grain sorghum) [30] or R9188 (a sweet sorghum) × R9403463-2-1 (a grain sorghum) [31]. These traits have been assigned to the ten sorghum chromosomes (Fig. 2), but the genes responsible for the traits have not yet been identified. Here, we showed the chromosomal locations of SWEET, SUT, SPS, SUS, and INV (Fig. 2). Some of these genes might be identical to those that were the targets of these previous QTL analyses. However, these genes are not located on the short arm of chromosome 6, even though a QTL analysis [30] indicated that this region was associated with sugar content (Fig. 2). Genes for heading date, plant height, stem diameter, tiller number per plant, panicle weight, and juice weight might also contribute to the final sugar content in sorghum stems. Therefore, genes for these sugar-related agronomic traits will need to be analyzed in the future.